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This review has been accessed times since December 9, 2005

Hargreaves, D. H. (2004). Learning for Life: The Foundations for Lifelong Learning. Bristol, UK: The Policy Press.

Pp. viii + 114
$28.06 ISBN   1-86134-597-6

Reviewed by Louis Lim
York University

December 9, 2005

Learning for Life: The Foundations for Lifelong Learning is the culmination of 11 seminars, involving 50 practitioners, academics, and policy makers in Britain. Conducted from May 2002 to October 2003, the seminars addressed, “Shaping Policies for Lifelong Learning: A Radical Approach”. Five major themes emerged and are discussed in this book: learning how to learn; generic skills; projects; importance of mentors; and personalisation. The book is specifically written for policy makers, but can be read by educators and those in the business community. David H. Hargreaves begins with a critique of existing curriculum, assessment, and pedagogical practices in Britain, followed by the need for radical innovation (e.g., due to changes in information, communication, and learning technologies). The aim of lifelong learning posits that students are motivated and capable of adapting to an ever changing world, occurring from “cradle to grave” (p. 1): “equip and motivate individuals to meet the demands and challenges that will face them in managing their lives and their work” (p. vii). The role of education shifts from predominant acquisition of knowledge, to include motivation and learning how to learn. The intent of the book is to provide a framework of “learning for life” as well as to discuss changes that are needed to make that vision a reality.

Curriculum, traditionally viewed as knowledge and content that students are to acquire, has been used to socialize people through the transmission of values, traditions, cultures, achievement, and citizenship. Hargreaves envisions curriculum, through major innovations, to link subject knowledge with skills that promote life-long and self-directed learning; that is, concentrate on the learner so curriculum is competency-led rather than solely information-led. Motivation becomes a prominent factor, and teachers are responsible for providing students with opportunities to learn how to learn and to ensure that students are motivated both in and out of school. One dilemma is motivation may be in tension with the transmission of societal values; for example, in promoting the importance of literacy in schools, students may become disinterested through the instructional practices of reading or writing. In a curriculum that promotes life-long learning, skills in literacy, numeracy, and computer literacies are vital, complemented with competencies of “generic skills” such as problem solving, thinking, communication, teamwork, social and interpersonal skills, and developing leadership.

Proposed shifts to curriculum also require major changes to assessment. Traditionally, assessment has determined the extent of students’ acquisition of knowledge and facts, rather than their understanding of concepts. The predominant reliance on summative assessments for public accountability (e.g., tests and examinations, external examinations) continues to cause undo stress on students, which can lead to disinterest in learning since its importance is lost to marks (especially if marks are low). Further, external examinations have put tremendous demands on teachers when school results are published in newspapers as league tables, impacting schools’ reputation. Rewards such as merit pay may pressure teachers to teach to the test (rather than the prescribed curriculum) or engage in unethical practices such as cheating. The concentration on low-order thinking through the acquisition of isolated skills and procedures makes the large-scale assessments invalid.

Hargreaves states that human beings, beginning at birth, are naturally interested in learning. One issue is why one-third of students in Britain are disinterested in school by the time it is no longer mandatory, yet these same students show positive attitudes in the workplace. One solution is pedagogy, or how teachers teach, with attention directed to students’ individual needs, their desire to want to learn, and to strengthen their metacognitive skills. Howard Gardiner suggests providing students with apprenticeship experiences (e.g., half-day at work, half day at school) so students are actively engaged in learning through real-life experiences. Apprenticeship is especially beneficial for students identified as at-risk, inviting them to bridge school experiences (i.e., acquiring skills and knowledge) with that of the workforce.

Another strategy is to design curriculum around a series of projects, or performance tasks, so students can collaborate in small groups, allowing for the development of life-long skills such as thinking and teamwork. Through adult mentors (not necessarily classroom teachers), students solve real-life problems that provide motivation to learn: “Discovering that learning helps you do enjoy and be successful at work is often the first positive step on the path to lifelong learning” (p. 61). These strategies are integrated into existing pedagogy, rather than add-ons. The role of specialized knowledge learned in school (often forgotten after a test or an examination) is deemphasized, in favor of skills that allow students to adapt to a rapidly changing world. Hargreaves believes that skills such as problem solving, communication, thinking, and learning how to learn are crucial since the specialized knowledge learned in school is not often directly applicable in the workforce. Students have diverse needs so personalised learning should occur with teachers spending time with individual students.

An example of how one can change and adapt is exemplified through the explosion of information, communication, and learning technologies (ICLT). With 2 billion Internet users by 2005, ICLT is a basic skill since it can be embedded into curriculum, bridging what students want to learn and what they need to learn. ICLT is also a tool to function efficiently in the work force. Consistent with life-long learning, ICLT can enhance students’ ability to learn (e.g., learning how to locate and critique information), and for students to take greater responsibility for their own learning. Teachers can use ICLT to alter teaching practices, by making learning more student-centered; while policy makers can determine what curriculum content should become obsolete.

For major shifts to curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy to occur, support for teachers is paramount. Teachers, often products of traditional schooling, may resist change: “People attracted to teaching tend to favor the satus quo…one cannot undo centuries of traditions with a few simple alterations” (Dan Lortie, in Hargreaves, p. 75). Thomas Sergiovanni, (in Hargreaves, p. 85) believes that schools need to transform from organizations to communities, with teachers part of a learning community. Teachers would experience professional development through collaboration. Hargreaves presents two types of capital that are directly related to teachers: intellectual and social. Intellectual capital means hiring the best teachers through their knowledge, skills, expertise, and talents. Social capital involves teachers working in a learning community that is based on trust and support. Through social capital, intellectual capital can be maximized. Like students, teachers need to be committed to life-long learning.

Hargreaves also believes that life-long learning requires radical or major innovations to the present school system. Since schools rarely apply to implement innovative practices that are outside current policies, reforms have been top-down. In addition to resistance from teachers, parents and students may also be hesitant with major changes. Students’ voice has traditionally been unwelcome, viewed as too critical and immature. Yet, the criticisms and suggestions offered by students may be beneficial by involving them in the process, rather than allowing them to blame teachers and the system if the outcomes of the innovation are not implemented as planned.

Several constraints make the implementation of radical innovation challenging. Chapter 7 focuses on the design and organization of schools. A question is if students grouped in age-appropriate classes (since curriculum is organized that way) actually maximize learning. Schools, as institutions of learning, often do not welcome adults and the community as partners. With adults (other than teachers) in the school, promoting life-long learning can be further realized since the community has a role in shaping students’ education. Of particular note is these adults do not replace classroom teachers, rather they are complementary with diverse experiences. Another concern is the need for formally trained guidance counselors who provide direction and advice to students for career planning: “Only a third of the teachers who have the status of the careers coordinator have a recognized qualification in the field and about half are insufficiently trained” (p. 37).

A further issue is administrators as managers. With the need for accountability (e.g., through external test scores) and school improvement, their responsibilities have been to improve test scores, conduct teacher appraisals, and budget. Bennis (1989), in Hargreaves, describes the manager as having a short-term vision, responsible for implementing the initiatives of the government (school is a unit) through control and acceptance of the status quo. A leader, on the other hand, is an innovator who has a long-term vision, encouraging others to take a prominent role in setting the direction of the school. The leader does what is right for the school, often challenging the status quo. Through high trust, collaboration can result with personal and system excellence, maximizing the intellectual and social capital of the school. Hargreaves proposes that management and leadership complement each other. The school shifts from an organization to a community that promotes pupil learning, adult learning, leadership, school-wide learning, school-to-school learning, and network-to-network learning.

One specific example of radical innovation is the Royal Society of Arts (RSA) 3-year project consisting of grade 7 classrooms from 5 schools. By switching the essence of curriculum from subject specific learning to skills such as citizenship, working with other people, and increased group work, greater attention to students resulted. To sustain the innovation, a learning community should exist, allowing for the exchange of ideas, successes, and challenges. Unfortunately, 10-15 years is needed to determine the impact on student learning with factors such as improved test scores on external examinations and measuring the extent of student motivation.

As an educator in Toronto, Canada, I found this thin, yet packed and readable book thought-provoking and forward thinking. I am astonished by the similarities between the British and Ontario education systems. The grades 1-12 curricula in Ontario were revamped in the late 1990s and are currently undergoing revisions. For the revised mathematics curriculum (implemented in September 2005), 7 mathematical processes have been identified: problem solving; reasoning and proving; reflecting; selecting tools and computational strategies; connecting; representing; and communicating. These were adapted from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)’s Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (2000). Other subject disciplines, like mathematics, now focus on the “generic skills” in addition to the importance of content. The importance of learning skills (works independently, teamwork, organization, work habits, initiative) are reflected in the provincial report card through separate reporting from academic achievement using a continuum of descriptors ranging from excellent to needs improvement. I believe Hargreaves’s book will be relevant to many jurisdictions that are in need of a framework to shift from predominant acquisition of knowledge in school to include skills needed for life-long learning. As I read the book, I said, “This makes so much sense!” Hence, I highly recommend this book to those interested in the future of education – especially policy makers and educators.

Governments now need to take the framework for life-long learning discussed in this book to produce radical innovation. The RSA is one such example but much more are needed. An entire chapter near the end of the book devoted to the RSA exemplar would have been beneficial. In particular, how did the schools go about initiating such a profound change? How did the various stakeholders (e.g., administrators, teachers, students, parents, community) come on board? What changes to school design were needed? What are the initial results of student achievement on the external tests? Have students’ attitudes and motivation to learning improved? What are schools doing to sustain the innovation? What are the costs involved?

I am pleased that students’ voice is discussed, although briefly. I think that students cannot be ignored since they are the ultimate benefactors in the reform. I would have liked to read more about the role of parents in radical innovation. Also, what does a learning community for teachers look like? Further, what pressures are exerted by post-secondary institutions which continue to value skill and knowledge acquisition? Unfortunately, in an age of accountability, the deciding factor whether or not the innovation is successful may be based on external test results. Consistent with the flavor of this book, I believe the success of the innovation should be based on students’ learning experiences – do they leave with a positive attitude to learning and have the motivation to want to learn? We must prepare students for an ever-changing society in which they will hold several jobs during their careers. The Internet changed society (unexpectedly?) back in the mid-1990s. What will be next?

Reference

National Council of Teacher of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.

About the Reviewer

Louis Lim is a PhD student in the faculty of education at York University in Toronto, Canada. He is interested in classroom-based assessments; in particular, the role of written communication in the teaching and learning of mathematics.

Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review.

Editors: Gene V Glass, Kate Corby, Gustavo Fischman

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