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This review has been accessed times since March 28, 2009
Reviewed by Sharon Harsh
Marsh, Herbert W.; Craven, Rhonda G. & McInerney, Dennis M. (Eds) (2008) Self-Processes, Learning, and Enabling Human Potential: Dynamic New Approaches. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc. Pp. 438 ISBN 978-1-59311-903-4
Edvantia, Inc.March 28, 2009
One of the persistent enigmas surrounding human development is that in spite of our vast knowledge of perceptual and cognitive processes, the variables that trigger the use of these processes in learning and development are not fully understood. Self-Processes, Learning, and Enabling Human Potential provides a valuable core of knowledge about self-processes and how these processes ignite and scaffold the development and application of perception and cognition.
The complex dimensions of self are discussed in a series of 16 well-selected monographs contributed by an international group of scholars and researchers who analyze the complicated layers of efficacy, engagement, and resilience that undergird the development and effective application of self-processes. The monographs are organized according to five thematic sections that guide the reader through a progressive examination of the constructs and processes and their application to self perception and learning.
Part I explains the perspective of each monograph and discusses the contribution that each one makes to the overall analysis of self. Editors Marsh, Craven, and McInerney hypothesize that “self-processes are dynamic and interact. . . [and]that typologies of the self are different faces of the one underlying, yet complex process” (p.3). This hypothesis forms a conceptual thread that weaves and unifies the monographs into a coherent discussion of a highly complex and differentiated topic. Organizationally, the editors arranged the monographs so that broad, global viewpoints are presented first, followed by a “fine-grained” analysis of the dimensions of self, and finally by examples of the self in operation. After considering the views presented in the monograph series, the editors restate their position that self-processes are dynamic, and conclude that self-processes are not only complex and differentiated yet coordinated, but are “fundamental to enabling human potential” (p. 11).
Herbert W. Marsh Part II contains three monographs that provide an essential launching point for filtering and understanding the remaining sections of the book. In this collection, the reader is given three unique, yet plausible views of the self that can be applied as an individual or amalgamated lens to examine the ensuing monographs and build an individual macrostructure or cognitive framework on the subject.
Bandura, in “Toward an Agentic Theory of the Self” presents a sociocognitive approach to understanding the self as an active agent that functions within a social context. In this theoretical perspective, Bandura posits that the self is dynamic, interacting within and on the social environment rather than simply reacting to the events encountered. In this view, an individual strives to integrate the multiple dimensions of self through four reiterative processes - intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness, and self-reflectiveness - all of which operate to form the identity of the individual self. In this monograph, Bandura explores three methods or modes in which agency is manifested: individual, proxy, and collective; and dispels contentious dualisms that traditionally require choices between individualism and collectivism, between agency and communion, and between personal agency and social structure. In the final analysis, Bandura underscores the critical role that efficacy plays in allowing the self to take an active role in cognition, motivation, and decision-making.
In “Processes of Integrating, Developing and Processing Self Information,” Hattie uses the analogy of a rope to describe the construction of the self-concept. In Hattie’s Rope Model, he compares the structure of a rope to the components of self-concept: strands (motives), yarns (dispositions), and fibers (specific strategies). In this model, the individual integrates, develops, and processes information to form and maintain a multidimensional , yet stable, self-concept. In this model, the integration process occurs by interlinking strategies to form different levels of self-concept. Hattie states that level one strategies are more enduring and are used to adapt the environment, resulting in higher self-concept. Level three strategies “are dependent on time, situation, and whether the processing is private or public” (p. 65), often resulting in low self-concept. Additionally, Hattie describes the application of self-strategies in the formation of low and high self-esteem. In his view, high self-esteem individuals rely primarily on the use and regulation of self-strategies; low self-esteem individuals rely on an integrated set of self-strategies that are used to defend themselves from a continually low self-image. In a particularly intriguing discussion, Hattie applied the notion of strategies to the question of causality; whether self-concept influences achievement or achievement influences self-concept. Rather than the direction of causality, Hattie stated that “it is more likely that there are higher relationships between certain self-strategies and achievement . . . [that] it is the choice of strategies, not the level of self-concept, that is the precursor to achievement gains” (p. 73).
A third view of self-concept, drawn from a review of current literature and research, is presented in “Self-Concept is as Multidisciplinary as it is Multidimensional.” In this monograph, the authors explain that self-concept is both multidisciplinary and multidimensional, and depending on the theoretical approach used, self-concept can be the target end goal or the means to achieve a desired end. Regardless of the theoretical model, the approaches and research results underscore the conclusion that self-concept is multidimensional and has wide applicability across disciplines. In addition to the overarching conclusion, the authors distill three general themes from the studies cited: 1) that high self-esteem promotes positive outcomes; 2) that a positive self-concept facilitates other desirable accomplishments; and 3) that a frame of reference (accomplishments in one area can serve as a frame of reference in other areas) can be used to form the self-concept.
In an interesting parallel circumstance that may well be the signature aspect of this book, Parts III and IV go progressively deeper into the layers of self-determination, self-regulation, self-efficacy, identity processes, possible selves, well-being, and resiliency, allowing the reader to become engaged in the examination of a multifaceted topic and gain the efficacious reward of experiencing and understanding the complex dimensions of the very processes described in the monographs.
In Part III, the first two monographs use self-determination theory to explore variations in self-concept in academic settings and the effect of parental roles on the development of autonomy. “Day-to-Day Variation in Competence Beliefs” examines whether student beliefs about their perceived competence varies from day to day. Results of the study found that student self-concept regarding competence beliefs not only varied across time but were correlated with the degree of teacher support that students felt during classroom instruction. The monograph “Meet the Parents: Mothers’ and Fathers’ Contextual and Psychological Resources Associated to Adolescents’ Perceptions of Parental Autonomy Support” reports the results of a research study on the consequences of supportive and nonsupportive autonomy practices. The study examined a wide range of practices and disaggregated the results according to three areas: type of external pressure such as marital status, adolescent characteristics, and parental resources such as personal motivation. Researchers proposed that the three areas (internal factors, external factors, and adolescent characteristics) shape an adolescent’s perception of parental autonomy support and that this perception promotes motivational resources of competence and autonomy. Results of the study indicated that the level of parental self-perceived competence and autonomy had a direct effect on children’s perception that both parents were autonomy supportive. The study, however, yielded mixed results regarding the impact of marital status and family income. In two-parent family configurations and in high-income families, children reported perceived paternal, rather than maternal, autonomy support. In the final analysis, the authors conclude that both “fathers’ and mothers’ autonomy supportive behaviors are associated with children’s perceived autonomy and competence (p. 167).
The next two monographs examine the realm of self-regulation. “In Search of Self-Regulated Learning: A Personal Quest” discusses Zimmerman’s work on the identification of the self-regulated learning skills (SRL) that are involved in acquiring personal competence. Through his study and research, Zimmerman found three key forms of proactive self-regulation strategies: personal or covert self-regulation, environmental self-regulation, and behavioral self-regulation. These forms of self-regulation were further refined into a set of 15 specific learning strategies that were found to be highly predictive of student achievement in school. Extensive analysis of the learning strategies culminated in the development of a three-phase cyclical model for self-regulation. In the first phase of this model, the forethought phase, Zimmerman proposes that self-regulated learners apply task analysis and self-motivational beliefs to initiate the learning process. In phase two of the model, performance phase, the self-regulated learner employs self-control and self-observation processes to shape the learning process, and in phase three, self-reflection phase, the self-regulated learner uses self-judgment and self-reaction to monitor, continue and refine the learning process. Research results showed that while the three-phase model is applied differently across self-regulated learners, the individual strategies or variables accurately predicted anticipated learning outcomes. Butler’s monograph “Evaluating Competence and Maintaining Self-Worth Between Early and Middle Childhood: Blissful Ignorance or the Construction of Knowledge and Strategies in Context?” examines commonly held notions regarding the self-regulatory behavior of young children. The author analyzes the results of studies that investigated the way children construct self-relevant knowledge and applied the findings to the argument that children need to have a sense of their capabilities and interest in evaluating them before it is possible to clearly see how children learn and regulate their behavior. Butler concludes that self-evaluation is impacted by similar factors regardless of the age of the learner, and that young children are more proficient than previously believed. Butler states that “even quite young children might adapt their standards and strategies in similar ways in keeping with characteristics of the context or domain” (p. 205) and that while “both younger and older children are capable of adaptive self-evaluation,” parents and teachers need to remain sensitive to the fact that “both are also vulnerable to developing negative self-views and patterns of behavior” (p. 217).
The last monograph in Part III, “Teacher Self-Efficacy: Conceptual Analysis and Relations with Teacher Burnout and Perceived School Context” examines several dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and analyzes the relationship between individual self-efficacy and collective teacher efficacy, external control factors, burnout, and school context factors. The authors found, like the preceding monographs which examined aspects of self from a student perspective, that teacher self-efficacy is multidimensional. The authors found six correlated dimensions of self-efficacy, all of which were significantly related to teacher self-efficacy, burnout, or both, and additionally found that school context and environment was an underlying variable that unified the impact of all the dimensions studied.
Part IV monographs delve into expanded dimensions of self that affect engagement in learning. “Egosystem and Ecosystem Goals and Adjustment to College” explores the notion that the type of goals that students have during the first semester of college can predict whether the students will be successful in transitioning and adjusting to college. In particular, the authors examine two types of goals: egosystem goals (goals that focus on protecting and enhancing the self-image of the student) and ecosystem goals (goals that focus on creating supportive relationships and environments). Of the two goals, ecosystem goals correlate positively to learning and adjustment. Egosystem goals, on the other hand, predicted lowered adjustment, increased loneliness, and decreased social support. The monograph “Possible Selves: Identity-Based Motivation and School Success” is a fascinating look at the relationship between the possible selves and the failure to sustain the necessary positive self-regulatory behavior that will lead to desired outcomes. The author of this monograph hypothesized that sustained self-regulation occurs when possible selves are congruent with the person’s social identities, are cued in context, are linked with strategies, and are supported by a consistent and compatible interpretation of possible selves. The author uses these evidence-based conditions to construct a predictive model for school success that can be applied to a variety of school contexts. The third monograph in this section, “The Resilient Self: Lessons Educators Can Take Away from Risk and Resilience Research” extends the analysis of possible selves to the relationship of perceived future self on motivation and academic success and the role that resilience and risk plays in the final outcome. In a review of resilience literature, the authors draw the conclusion that the “development and maintenance of particular possible selves may serve a protective function, allowing students who would otherwise be considered to be ‘at risk’ educationally to pursue and create a passion for academic subject matter” (p. 296). This conclusion formed the basis of a hypothesis that possible selves could be the precursor to changes in motivation and achievement, as opposed to being the outcome of motivation and achievement. The authors used this hypothesis to study the interaction of various factors and the resultant possible self. Results of the study showed that a higher perceived self is related to the norms and support offered by peers and family members, as well as the level of expectation, respect, fairness, and personal interest that the student encounters in the classroom. The final monograph in this part, “Self and Socialization: How Do Young People Navigate Through Adolescence?” looks further into the impact that significant others play in self-development and socialization during adolescence. To examine this impact, the author investigates how adolescents use four successive developmental mechanisms - channeling, selection, adjustment and reflection - to “navigate” through adolescence and how three processes of direction, adjustment, and identity construction are used in self-development and socialization during the adolescent years.
In Part V, the editors conclude with a collection of monographs that demonstrate how self-processes can be applied and analyzed in authentic educational settings. Two monographs examine the big-fish-little pond effect (BFLPE) and the third and final monograph examines the relationship between self-processes and bullying. “Class-Average Achievement, Marks and Academic Self-Concept in German Elementary Schools” reports that elementary students who receive written marks on their examinations had a stronger BFLPE than students who receive verbally reported social comparisons. Additionally, the monograph “East Meets West: An Examination of the Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect in Western and Non-Western Countries” examined the universality of BFLPE and discovered that the effect was found in 41 western and nonwestern countries. “The Beyond Bullying Secondary Program: An Innovative Program Empowering Teachers to Counteract Bullying in Schools” described the effects of bullying and explained how school climate, teacher training in self-concept enhancement and monitoring techniques have been successfully used as intervention strategies to reduce the incidence of bullying.
The theoretical frameworks, literature, and research presented in this book underscore the editors’ conclusion that “self-processes are complex, differentiated, yet coordinated” (p. 11). Throughout the book, the reader encounters a rich array of knowledge on the critical and essential underlying processes that support the development and realization of the possible self. This material will be invaluable to both scholars and practitioners who are engaged in teaching, counseling and supporting the development of human potential.
About the Reviewer
Sharon Harsh Sharon Harsh currently serves as director of the Appalachia Regional Comprehensive Center (ARCC) and co-director of the Center for Education Services (CES) at Edvantia, Inc. As ARCC director, she manages state liaisons and content specialists who provide technical assistance to the state education agencies in Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. For CES, she co-directs Edvantia’s professional development and technical assistance work with schools and districts. Prior to joining Edvantia, Dr. Harsh was an assistant superintendent of schools for 24 years in Monongalia, Preston, and Barbour counties in West Virginia. She also worked as a teacher, school psychologist, attendance director, and director of special education. She has been an adjunct instructor in education administration, sociology, and psychology at the graduate and undergraduate levels. She holds certification in elementary education, music, developmental reading, public school administration, social services, and attendance, and is certified as a school psychologist in both West Virginia and Pennsylvania. Dr. Harsh is also trained as a Cognitive Coach and completed Advanced Seminar training in 2008. She has a bachelor's degree in psychology and music, a master's degree in child development, a doctoral degree in education administration and instructional leadership, and completed the first year of law school. Dr. Harsh received an international scholarship for doctoral study, was a Fulbright Seminar Abroad scholar to South Africa and Zimbabwe, and received a 2007-08 Visiting Leader appointment in the Educational Leadership Studies department at West Virginia University.
Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review.
Editors: Gene V Glass, Gustavo Fischman, Melissa Cast-Brede
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